What is the crisis in the British family a crisis about? How is the crisis gendered?

The term ‘family' officially evokes the image of a heterosexual, nuclear institution where each member is related to the other by marriage/law or blood, and the state, religion, media and other important institutions in our society encourage this image. However, lived realities are often very different and in recent years this form of the family, which is assumed to be normal and the norm, has been displaced by various other family forms which are labeled as deviant and which are assumed to be the root of current social problems. Hence has risen a ‘crisis' in the British family. This crisis has been highlighted by the various social institutions mentioned above which encourage the heterosexual nuclear family form. Quoting Wright and Jagger, according to them ‘the turn of the century is marked by a growing crisis in the family, a crisis that may prove terminal unless decisive action is taken', and the crisis has been pointed out as the collapse of marriage and the ‘family'. This crisis however is not new and a similar was said to have risen at the end of the 19th century. Like now, the crisis then too had been a rise in social problems and women had been identified as the cause. Single mothers, working mothers, woman opposing the dominant ideology of ‘womanhood' were and are labeled as the cause of the ‘crisis'! As Gittins say, ‘Ideals of family relationships have become enshrined in our legal, social, religious and economic systems, which in turn reinforce the ideology and penalise or ostracise those who transgress it. ‘[Gittins 1992] The crisis in the family can thus be seen as nothing more than a gap between the ideological construction of the family and the diverse realities of family life. [Gittins,1993] The different alternate family forms that have come up and become increasingly common in the last few decades such as the single parent (specially single mother) family, extended families, communes, homosexual families are seen as social threats. This is because they resist the patriarchal ideology that is prevalent in the nuclear family form where the male is all-powerful. Resistance to this form of the family has seen the rise of the gendering of the family crisis with the blame falling on the women. This crisis as mentioned above is not something new and was seen before in the 1890's when the results of it were deemed to be the evils of those times – namely illegitimate children, women not having children, prostitution, homosexuality etc. The family – which by the way was the white, middle class, heterosexist family – was seen to be the buffer against these social evils. In these families the sexual divisions of labor played an important part in the claiming of moral superiority. The industrial Revolution which preceded this period can this be seen as the time when the seeds of change were sown, because even though at this time the ‘domestic ideology' of the middle class was established, working class women became increasingly involved in paid employment working away from home – and hence rose the first crisis. Indeed, the cause of the crisis at this time was seen to be the ‘bad' mother – invariably a working class woman in paid labor. With World War II however, women had to take up jobs and it allowed them more freedom. Gradually the 20th century saw changes in attitudes and legislation – though it did take a very long time. The most important legislative changes were perhaps the right of divorce for women and the decriminalization of gay relationships. These factors were important in the rise in the alternate family forms. The argument that the heterosexual family is the ‘norm' can however no longer be held valid. There is a vast discrepancy between the actual family forms and the ‘cereal-packet family' considered the ideal! In 1961 over half of all households consisted of a married couple with dependent children and in 1992 this proportion had dropped to 24%. In 2001 19% all households consisted of an adult couple and dependent children – the couple not necessarily married. Marriage certainly has become less popular in the last 2 decades. Cohabitation, teen pregnancies, the number of children outside marriage has seen a marked increase. Homosexuality also has become much more widely accepted in society and many homosexual couples live with their children – adopted or from previous relationships. Divorce rates have also shot up dramatically with 1 in every 3 marriages ending in a divorce. These changes have been constructed into a national crisis by the state and the media. The statistics have been used to create moral panic among the people. In Britain, the government whether the New Right or the New Left have supported the ‘traditional family'. In the debates and policies of the New Right or the New Left, there is seen to be a particular connection between deviant family forms and social ills and there can be seen a particular vision of the individual, family and state responsibility. Policy units, the think tanks like the Social Affairs and the Economic Affairs units and the newspapers rather than the academic press stress are the agencies that stress more on the importance of the ‘traditional family values'. [Jagger and Wright, 1999] The lobbyists on behalf of the ‘ normal' family say that government policies and feminist ideologies threaten it. Government policies however far from threatening the nuclear family form strongly support it. In fact the Conservatives called themselves the party of the ‘family' and deviant family forms such as homosexual relationships and cohabitation were actively discouraged. The 1988 Local Government Act stated that it was an offence for local government employees or institutions to promote the acceptability of homosexuality as a family relationship. The Conservatives also shifted away from state provision and the emphasis lay on the family as a source of provision and rhetoric as well as legislation supported this. The moral panic shifted from the unemployed male scrounger to the female lone parent on benefit. The benefits given to single parents were cut down and the Child Support Act was introduced. Refamilisation – by which fathers were tried to be reinserted into the family by being made responsible for his child after separation made life very difficult for those people who had been divorced. This rhetoric of traditional family values however helped the state to back out of much of its fiscal responsibilities! The Labour Governments emphasis has also been on the family. Legislation based on the ‘families role in society' has been passed. As Frazer says, there is ‘an insistent emphasis on ‘the family' as the relevant and significant institution' together with ‘the insistence that rights must be correlated with duties, obligations and responsibilities'. It does seem from the government's emphasis on the family that the terrain of family offers the illusion of a cheap and feasible political program. Other than this emphasizing on family also obscures the failure of the politicians in other spheres such as economics or likewise. The media also plays an important role in this invocation of ‘the family' – the ‘cereal-packet family' being a noteworthy propaganda and the stress on the current ‘crisis'! Religion is another important social institution that encourages the nuclear family maintaining it to be moral and healthier that the other family forms. It has been seen that in all these cases of addressing this crisis by the state, the media or any other institution the focus has been on women as the cause of the crisis and consequently social problems. The single mother is seen as the source of current social evils like poverty, children's indiscipline, crime and juvenile delinquency. Fatherless families are seen to be more of a problem with no one to impose authority and discipline! The discourse of lone/single motherhood as a social threat as it helps to resist close scrutiny of the content of hegemonic masculinity and fatherhood. [Lister, 1996] and conceals the fear that if men lose their relevance to the family life they also lose control over women and children. The traditional nuclear family, which is patriarchal, enforces this ideology through the strict gendered division of labor and other family forms without these gender divisions are not seen as desirable or normal. The traditional family is seen as one in which the male is the breadwinner and the woman is the homemaker – looking after the house and the children. This was in fact the Victorian middle class ideology. Though today women are no longer thought of as not going into paid work, it is still considered that her primary duty lies in looking after the home – thus she has a double burden of her job and housework. Men however have no such responsibilities and the symmetrical family that Young and Willmott talk about in which housework is shared equally between men and women instead of men thinking that they are doing a favour by helping, will take a long time to come if it ever does come at all! These family relationships – the inequality of women in their relationships with men ( in either marriage or cohabitation) is linked to wider social and economic factors and is infact sanctioned by the power of the state. Thus gendered division of labor is a part of the ‘normal' family ideals. The crisis in the family means that this gender division no longer works within a majority of the families anymore. This is the feminist explanation for the rise of a ‘crisis' in the family by the media and the state. The patriarchy that is based on the exploitation of women's unpaid labor at home constructs alternate family forms as a ‘crisis' and blames women as the cause of social problems, advocating the return to the ‘normal, heterosexual, nuclear family' for a better and healthier society!

Ico.popov@gmail.bg Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

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Coronary Artery Disease - Research Paper Example It is established that LDL or Low-density lipoproteins are chiefly atherogenic in nature. On the other hand high-density lipoproteins or HDLs are defensive lipids as they aid in LDL metabolism. On oxidation LDLs become tougher to metabolize and become cytotoxic leading to endothelial injury (Pollard, 2009). Chronic Endothelial injury Hypothesis- Endothelium protection and its repair is performed by glycosaminoglycan or GAGs, when GAGs become weak, atherosclerosis is instigated. The process is promoted due to exposure of endothelial cells and free-radical damage. As damage of endothelial lining is initiated the site promotes the permeability of plasma constituents especially the lipoproteins. Thus oxidized LDLs are capable of damaging the endothelial lining of the cells which results in the formation of plaque (Stephen, 2011). When the endothelial cells are injured, the macrophages present in the blood move around from the blood circulation. The inner side of the artery forms a layer called layer of intima. Consequently, smooth muscles join intima along with connective tissue as well as lipids present inside as well as outside the cells to generate a plaque. This brings about union as well as accumulation of platelets, as well as release various growth regulating factors to amplify the procedure ensuing obstruction of the lumen of the artery, leading to thrombus establishment (Mottillo, 2010). Mottillo, S., Filion, K. B., Genest, J., Joseph, L., Pilote, L., Poirier, P., Rinfret, S., Schiffrin, E. L., Eisenberg, M. J. (2010). The Metabolic Syndrome and Cardiovascular Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol, 56(14), 1113- 1132. Stephen D. Wiviott, Marcus D. Flather, Michelle L. ODonoghue, Shinya Goto, Desmond J. Fitzgerald, Fernando Cura, Philip Aylward, Victor Guetta, Dariusz Dudek, Charles F. Contant, Dominick J. Angiolillo, Deepak L. Bhatt.

Multinational corporations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

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Rugby Football Union Essay Example for Free

Rugby Football Union Essay With sport gaining increasing esteem, and spreading largely into university, the first sets of national rules came about through the Oxbridge melting pot with the Football Association (1863) and the Rugby Football Union (1871). The combination of Oxford and Cambridge university students comprised standardized rules and this further development undoubtedly helped expand sport in Britain. Increased participation by lower classes in the 19th century soon led to the questioning of middle class social control. The growth of professionalism resulted in a series of disputes between both classes with regards to sporting interests.   With regards to boxing, the changes have been remarkable with the core principles still continuing throughout the 19th century. For example, in 1867 the Marques of Queensberry Rules were drafted and introduced fixed time periods for rounds of three minutes and a one minute recovery period. There was also the beginning of gloves and a qualified referee to ensure a fair fight. Another change was in the location of bouts. After 1880, fights began taking place in designated arenas, with proper rings including ropes and canvases unlike the man made circle of spectators that previously made the ring.  Furthermore, there was the classification of weight divisions, formed around 1890 by athletic clubs. The original weight classes of light or heavyweight were then joined by four other categories; bantamweight, featherweight, welterweight and middleweight. In theory, the finely calibrated division were created to prevent mismatches; in practice, they have the felicitous effect of creating many more champions and many more title shots'(John Sugden Boxing and Society pg 31).  However, the continuity of boxing in the 19th century still included the main principal of inflicting a sufficient amount of physical damage to an opponent to win a bout. Outside the ring, gambling was still rife in the sport with potentials of big winnings if the higher class folk such as lords had good participants fight for them. Another aspect of continuity in boxing was the environment in which boxers fought in. The fighters in the 19th century were still surrounded by rowdy spectators which created a sense of hostility around the setting. Lastly, the social aspect of boxing remained within the sport. The working class men saw boxing as an outlet from the hard shifts undergone at the factories and could enjoy a social drink. With regards to horse racing, there were many changes within the 19th century. The variety of races were expanded and specific roles were assigned for certain people on the race course e.g. starters, judges and bookmakers.  Jarvie, G (2006) explains how the sport has developed after the 1800s. With the rail link leading to increased transport, came larger attendances at races, allowing for jockeys to travel about in order to compete elsewhere which is how Horne. J; Tomlinson, A and Whannel, G (1999) refer to the development of the characteristics of horse racing through the nature of the modernisation of 19th century Britain. An aspect of continuity in horse racing is gambling which is a key role within English horse racing. Gambling in horse racing has been rife since the beginning due to the large financial and economical profits that gambling provides to the British public and society.  Another point of continuity in horse racing in the 19th century is that it was the highest spectator sport within Britain, with the annual race being a large social event for many towns, merging all social classes together. Another change is in the equality of horse racing. Initially, in horse racing, the upper classes retained jockeys to ride on their behalf (Barry, 2002: p 5) due to the costs of maintaining the horses, travel expenses and entry fees. Kay, J and Vamplew, W (2003: p 128) stated that, there was an equality of aim to organise and win races but an inequality of means which divide the sport and its participants into discrete zones of competition. Furthermore, racing declared to, promote intercourse between different classes of society (Vamplew, W 1976: p 130) in order to provide equal opportunity and since there were no set rules prior to 1797, the 19th century was vital to horse racing, providing the Rules Concerning Horse Racing in General. These were followed by amendments made by the jockey club.  The 19th century brought an improved standard upon horse racing with time trials, improved diets and fluid retention along with sweating and purging and the first record of a horse race was made in 1842 in the Racing Calendar due to the improvement of literacy. Additionally, with British society rapidly altering with the industrial revolution, horse racing in the 19th century provided increased police supervision and protection to maintain order and set an example to society.  The new middle class also had a defining impact upon the change and continuity of sport in the 19th century. The population grew fourfold in the 19th century and, it was in the public schools that older ball games and athletic activities were re-invented and turned into modern sports. (Holt, R, 2001: p 75) Rugby came from the Rugby School; where Thomas Arnold was influential, and his students went on to spread the sport of rugby throughout the educational system in the 1850s. The game rugby, a strictly amateur sport, started with the simple rule of allowing a player to run with a ball if he caught it on the fly or on the first bounce. Formed in 1872 the Rugby Union initially consisted of teams with 20 players but was then cut down to 15 in 1875. Games were won by go als alone; however tries and penalties were added in 1877 as a scoring system which continues today. Brasch (1986) explains how Rugby league which can be traced back to the 1871, attracting large numbers of players and crowds from the working classes. With such a rapid growth in the sport came a fear of loss of control by the Rugby Football Union and an eventual split formed the Northern Rugby Football Union in 1895. There first action was to impose the payment of players and then gradually changed the rules with the abolition of the lineout and the value of goals was changed to two points. However, the sport maintained the fair play initiative and same method of scoring and purpose within the game. The strength of the men playing the sport epitomised muscular Christianity and embodied British society.  It is clear to see how the game of rugby impacted upon the latter stages of the 19th century. With vast change and rapid growth it is clear to see that compared to sport in the early 19th century it had begun to mature and cement its place amongst British society. The back streets were no longer areas of play, alcohol was controlled in order to maintain society and schoolyards were helping to increase participation along with the formation of new sports. The educational system was profound upon sport in 19th century Britain. It was not until 1890 when Baron de Coubertin revisited the Rugby School where Thomas Arnold was the headmaster, did his dream to revive the Olympics and globalise sport come true. He saw how sporting principles in British schools, muscular Christianity and athleticism were a good way to re-build the youth of France after the defeat in the Franco-Prussian war. His take on sport in Britain drove him to form the International Olympic Committee in 1894. In conclusion, sport within Britain in the 19th century evidently grew along with growth of the United Kingdom and the change from small towns to large industrial cities was like the change from early 19th century football to the rationalisation and formation of professionalism and the Football Association. The festivals and past times of playing sports in any street were given a purpose and designated area in the 19th century. The United Kingdoms initial reluctance to teach sport in schools was eventually turned around and seen as a perfect way to promote healthy living. Not only did sport in 19th century Britain create much change, much of its continuity is evident through the peoples passion to not let work control their life and pursue sporting events even though sometimes it wasnt in their free time. Bibliography Barry, T. (2002) Advanced PE for Edexcel (Limited Edition) Harcourt Education Limited, Heinemann and London.  Brasch, R. (1986) How Did Sports Begin? (edition published in 1990) Tynron Press, Stenhouse, Dumfriesshire.  Kay, J and Vamplew, W (2003)